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Review for AP Exam on Wednesday!

Let’s review (a few) logical fallacies!

1. Argumentum ad hominem – (a.k.a. argument directed against the person). The error of attacking the character or motives of a person who has stated the idea, rather than the idea itself.

Examples: “You don’t like John Travolta? Well, you have chronic halitosis!”

“We all know that Nixon was a liar and a cheat, so why should we believe anything he says?”

2. Cum hoc ergo propter hoc (“with this, therefore because of this”) – This is the fallacy of mistaking correlation for causation, i.e., thinking because two things occur simultaneously, one must be the cause of the other. E.g., President Clinton had sound economic policies. Just look at how great the economy did while he was in office.” Of course, the robust economy during the Clinton Administration may be a coincidence or the robust economy could have been the product of a previous administration or Clinton’s policies may have actually benefited our economy.

3. Non sequitur (“It does not follow.”) – This is the fallacy of stating, as a conclusion, something that does not strictly follow from the premises. E.g., “The inconsistency of the quality of schools in HISD is wrong; therefore, we need the top ten percent rule.” Obviously, there is at least one missing step in this argument, because the inconsistency among the schools does not confirm a need for the top ten percent rule without additional support.

4. Slippery slope – Although not always a fallacy, a slippery slope is an argument that claims taking one action will lead to a series of other actions taken, without showing a causal connection between the advocated policy and the consequent policies. E.g., “If we lower the drinking age, the next thing you know, we’ll legalize marijuana, LSD, and crack cocaine.” A slippery slope is a form of a non sequitur.

5. Straw man – This is the fallacy of refuting an extreme version of your opponent’s argument. This often involves putting words in someone’s mouth by implying or stating that she has made arguments she hasn’t actually made. E.g., “Ms. Seward states that she supports the top ten percent rule because most of the top ten percent of Bellaire High School will attend out-of-state colleges anyway,” when in fact Ms. Seward has stated only that she perceives certain benefits stemming from the top ten percent rule.

6. Bandwagon appeal – A bandwagon appeal encourages the listener to agree with a position because everyone else does. Thus, if everyone is doing it, it must be acceptable.

Sick and tired of fallacies? Peruse these sentence structures!

1. Loose sentence – (a.k.a. cumulative sentence) begins with the main clause and continues with the supporting details. E.g., “She kicked the ball on that hot Saturday afternoon, rays of sun ricocheting off of her flaming red hair, sweat soaking her polyester purple jersey, but with a broad grin enlivening her countenance.”

2. Periodic sentence – delays the statement of the central idea until the period at the end. Periodic sentences are relatively rare; some writers use them to create suspense by withholding the important information until the end. E.g., “Her blue hair waved, circles of rouge on her wrinkled cheeks, lipstick etching the lines around her mouth, still moisturizing her skin nightly, still corseted, she dies.” - Una Stannard

3. Telegraphic sentences – consist mainly of content words (i.e., few or no prepositions or articles). E.g., “Fido died.” “Bhanu burped.” “Fiona fainted.”

4. Imperative sentence – a command – “Quiet, sixth period!”

5. Declarative sentence – a statement – “Junior AP English is an enthralling class.” (This example is perhaps also a hyperbole.)

6. Compound sentences – consist of at least two independent clauses as the two following examples reflect: (i) IC; IC. “I love John Travolta; he is my life.” (ii) IC, (one of the fanboys) IC. “I love John Travolta, but he has a restraining order against me.”

Remember that a compound sentence is still a compound sentence in the presence of a conjunctive adverb; accordingly, please be aware of this construction. (I just wrote one!) Examples of common conjunctive adverbs are as follows:

Also	However	Nevertheless	Anyway	Instead
Otherwise	Besides	Likewise	Still	Consequently
Meanwhile	Then	Furthermore	Moreover	Therefore

7. Complex sentences – consist of at least one independent clause and at least one subordinate (dependent) clause as the following two examples reflect: (i) SC, IC. “Because I stalked John Travolta, I must wear this tracking device.” (ii) IC SC. “I must wear this tracking device whenever I am within 500 yards of John Travolta.” If a circle represents an IC, and a square represents an SC, please remember “circle after square, put a comma there.”

8. Compound complex sentences – contain at least two independent clauses and one subordinate clause as the following examples reflect: E.g.: (i) SC, IC; IC. “When May rolls around, I become bored; I am tired of all these exams!” (ii) IC; IC SC. “I am tired; I am bored because school has lasted too long.” (iii) IC, (fanboys) IC SC. “I am bored, and I am sleepy because this review sheet is too long!”

To conjure up a subordinating conjunction, remember “WABU WABU WATIST”

While	When(ever)	Where(ever)(as)
As	After	Although
Before	Because	Though
Unless	Until	If
		Since
		That

Appeals are soooooo appealing!

Remember that if a writer is a skillful rhetorician, she will be persuading (or manipulating) you to agree with her point of view. (Methods of manipulation produce meaning.) As part of the art of persuasion, she will use at least one of the following three appeals.

1. Pathos[1] – emotional – E.g., An advertisement for an automobile shows a car with a backdrop of a stunning sunset and an equally stunning woman draped over the hood.

2. Ethos - the writer establishes her credibility; the reader trusts the writer. An ethical appeal highlights the credentials and the character of the writer. E.g., Stephen Hawking would have huge ethical appeal in any discussion involving physics. A writer can also establish ethos by using a concession and rebuttal, in which the writer acknowledges an opposing point of view (but then quickly and completely refutes it).

Basic templates for a concession and rebuttal include the following (more follow on the next pages):

“Although I grant that _______________, I still maintain that ____________.”

“Although I concede that _________ is true, this point is moot because _________.”

“Proponents of X are right to argue that ____________. But they exaggerate when they claim that _____________.”

“While it is true that ____________, it does not necessarily follow that __________.”

“On the one hand, I agree with X that ______________. But on the other hand, I still insist that _________________.”

Of course, you may compose your own. You will use a concession and rebuttal in your persuasive essay (ADQ) and your synthesis essay.

3. Logos – logical appeal – appeals to the reader’s reasoning capabilities.

Types of logos include the following:

Inductive reasoning begins with examples or specifics and generalizes logically from there. (Remember that a capital “I,” at least the way Ms. Seward writes it, is narrow at the top and broad at the bottom.)

Deductive reasoning begins with a general principle and proceeds with details.

A syllogism is a formalized method of expressing deductive reasoning. A syllogism consists of a major premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion. E.g.:

The world is complex.

Nonlinear systems in physics account for complexity.

Nonlinear systems render a fuller account of the world.

The Toulmin model of argumentation is a less formalized form of deductive reasoning. In the Toulmin model, the data supports the claim, and the warrant forms the bridge between the data and the claim. The data are comprised of the evidence, facts, and information that are the reasons for the claim in the first place. Data may take the form of anecdotes, examples, testimony, or statistics. The claim is the position on the issue. The warrant establishes the logical connection between the data and the claim. The warrant is important; it is the component that persuades the reader. A warrant may be authoritative (expert testimony), motivational (relies on appeals to the reader’s convictions, virtues, or values), or substantive (more traditional logic such as cause and effect). Warrants answer the unspoken question “How did you arrive at that claim based upon the data presented?”

For purposes of the AP English Language and Composition Exam, you may want to use the Toulmin model as a way to craft your claim or thesis for the persuasive essay. E.g.:

Because ____ [data] ______, it is therefore ___ [claim] _______ since __ [warrant] _____.

Remember that often the “therefore” in this template sounds awkward; accordingly, feel free to omit it!

Templates – use them as you see fit

Additional Helpful Templates

When writing a persuasive or a synthesis essay, the following templates[2] may be helpful:

Introducing an Ongoing Debate and Concluding with your Thesis:

“In discussions of X, one controversial issue has been _______. On the one hand, _______argues _________. On the other hand, ___________ contends ___________. Others even maintain ________________. My own view is ________________. “

Introducing an Author’s Viewpoint:

X acknowledges that __________.
X agrees that ________________.
X argues that _________________.
X believes that _______________.
X denies that ________________.
X claims that _______________.
X complains that _______________.
X concedes that _______________.
X demonstrates that _____________.
X deplores the tendency to __________.
X emphasizes that ____________.
X insists that ___________________.
X observes that ______________.
X questions whether ______________.
X refutes the claim that _______________.
X reminds us that _______________.
X reports that __________________.
X suggests that ____________________.
X urges us to ____________________.

Introducing Quotes

If you require your students to cite to sources, whether summarizing, paraphrasing, or embedding quotes, the following templates may be useful:

X states, “______.”
As the prominent journalist X puts it, “___________.”
According to X, “_________.”
X himself writes, “__________.”
In her book, ________, X maintains that “_________.”
Writing in the journal The National Review, Kevin Williamson complains that “____.”
In X’s view, “______.”
X agrees when she writes, “________.”
X disagrees when he writes, “___________________.”
X complicates matters further when he writes, “________________.”

Supporting Quotes with Commentary

After the students introduce the quote, they will need to comment or provide commentary. Asking the students to highlight the portions of quoted matter versus the portions of commentary may hit home to them that their commentary must support and explain the quote in a way that bests supports their theses. Templates to guide students in explaining quotations are as follows:

· Basically, X is saying that ________.

· In other words, X believes _____________.

· In making this comment, X argues that ___________.

· X is insisting that ____________________.

· X’s point is that _________________________.

· The essence of X’s arguments is that _______________.

Concessions and Rebuttals

In my opinion, concessions and rebuttals only strengthen students’ arguments. Templates to guide your students through this part of the process are as follows:

Although I grant that _____, I still maintain that ____________.
Proponents of X are right to argue that ___________. But they exaggerate when they claim that _____________.
While it is true that ______________, it does not necessarily follow that ____________.
On the one hand, I agree with X that ___________. But on the other hand, I still insist that _____________________.

Rebuttals

Finally, your students may just want to express disagreement with a source or to emphasize their rebuttals. Templates for simple disagreements are as follows:

I think X is mistaken because she overlooks _____________.
X’s claim that ________ rests upon the questionable assumption that _________.
I disagree with X’s view that _____________ because, as recent research confirms, ______.
By focusing on _____, X overlooks the deeper problem of ___________.
X claims _________, but we don’t need him to tell us that. Anyone familiar with _____ had long known that __________.

Speaking of that blasted exam …

Multiple choice – You will have an hour to answer from 45 to 60 questions. You will receive one point for every correct answer, zero points for no answer. There is no guessing penalty on the English Language AP. The questions are NOT in order from easiest to most difficult. Answer the line reference questions first. Circle the more difficult questions and return to them if you have time. For example, you may want to skip the time-consuming questions such as “This passage contains all of the following EXCEPT,” and the ones with answer choices such as “I, II, and III; I and II only; I and III only.” Of course, if you have time, revisit the questions you skipped. Remember to divide the sixty minutes by the number of passages and write your beginning and ending time on your packet and stick to your time frames.

Documentation – One of passages will ask you about footnotes and documentation. You should be able to parse the following footnotes. Remember that longer works (books, magazines, journals, films, and television shows) are italicized or underlined; shorter works (chapters, articles, short films, and episodes) sport quotation marks.

John F. Kasson, Civilizing the Machine: Technology and Values in America 1776 – 1900 (New York: Grossman Publishers, The Viking Press, 1976), Chapter 4, “The Aesthetics of Machinery,” pp. 139-180.

“Machine Tools at the Philadelphia Convention,” Engineering (26 May 1876), p. 427, cited by Kasson, see note 1 above.

“The International Exhibition of 1876,” Scientific American Supplement (17 June 1876), p. 386, cited by Kasson, see note 1 above.

Richard Guy Wilson, Dianne H. Pilgrim, Dickran Tashjian, The Machine Age in America 1918 – 1941 (New York: The Brooklyn Museum in association with Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1986), p. 85.

The Synthesis essay - You will have fifteen minutes to read the seven or eight sources provided and to begin writing your essay (in fact, any of the essays you choose). You will likely be required to integrate at least three sources into a coherent, well-written essay, in which you will likely be asked to defend, challenge, or qualify a claim or to advise your reader on a certain topic.

Therefore, you MUST read the prompt and instructions carefully. Draw a box around the prompt and task. Jot down your thesis as well as any outside sources you may use BEFORE you peruse your provided sources. Write your claim in the first paragraph. You may write in first person in this essay. You MUST cite to at least three sources or however many sources the instructions require. Peruse the citation for each source, box all “notable quotables,” and write a plus, minus, or “n” in each upper right hand corner. You MUST quote and paraphrase from these sources. You MUST cite to a source each time you quote or mention information or ideas found in the source. You may cite to the sources as “Source A,” “Source B,” etc.

Allow the sources to support your original argument, but do not fall into the trap of using a plethora of the sources and ignoring your own original ideas. Sources for your own ideas may include personal experience, observation, and reading. In other words, you should, if at all possible, use outside examples to support your claim. You should include a concession and rebuttal to establish ethos. Remember to consider the validity of your sources (date of publication, type of publication, if any). If a source looks too old or just “fishy,” go ahead and use it if you would like, but concede to your reader any potential flaws. You will receive points for your academic integrity and sophistication.

Transitions – You should have them, between paragraphs, between sentences, between ideas.

The following is a list of popular transitions. Of course, the best transitions are the ones that you compose yourself alluding to a former point while hinting of a point to come. Also (note the transition!), remember that your transition need not be the first word in the sentence.

Consequently	Subsequently	Simply put	In sum	Therefore
Thus	Specifically	For example	Indeed	Instead
Arguably	Allegedly	Surprisingly	Consider the case[3]	Additionally
Also	Accordingly	Furthermore	Moreover	Despite the foregoing
Likewise	Similarly	Because of ____,	In keeping with _____,	As the foregoing statement reflects[4]
In fact	Insofar as	Admittedly	Given the foregoing	Go wild! Compose a few!

Rhetorical analysis – Read and annotate the prompt for approximately five – 10 of your 40 minutes. Remember to read the title to the passage, and read the prompt and instructions carefully. Specifically identify the author’s purpose or claim in your first paragraph. Note diction, syntax, tone (recall that the readers prefer to see tone described in an adjective-noun pair, e.g., “restrained anger”), and imagery. Also recall “method reinforces meaning, which leads to manipulation” (persuasion). Avoid first person. Discuss the author’s writing in present tense. Remember the rhetorical triangle. Please note that there are many ways to skin the rhetorical cat. You may use any of the acronyms mentioned below. You may discuss how the author uses the three appeals to convey his or her point. The most recent trend seems to be a chronological analysis of the piece, i.e., begin your discussion with the first paragraph of the piece follow it to its conclusion. All approaches are acceptable; just write and think well.

Rhetorical Analysis Cheat Sheet

Read the prompt carefully – remember BAT (background, advice, task).

Draw a box around the task.

Draw a rhetorical triangle in the upper left hand corner of your paper. Identify speaker\writer, audience\reader, and subject\exigence (reason compelling the speaker to speak)

For about 10-20 minutes read and annotate the selection carefully.

Determine the author’s\speaker’s specific purpose, and write it on your prompt.

Conduct triage – Decide what aspects of the selection to analyze. All of the aspects of the analysis must be related to the author’s purpose. E.g., if the selection’s alliteration merely catches the reader’s attention or engages the reader, that is insufficient reason to include that alliteration in your analysis. On the other hand, if the repetition of the consonant “s” at the beginning of several words creates a hissing sound that echoes the disapproval of the mob against a rebel protesting the status quo, and that protest relates to the speaker\author’s purpose, that alliteration is worthy of inclusion in your analysis.

Write a game plan (outline, bubble chart, bullet points) on your prompt BEFORE you begin your essay. Frontloading will save you time and heartache.

Write in third person; write in present tense; write both of the author’s names the first time you mention him/her, and by surname only thereafter.

First paragraph – Describe specifically the author’s purpose; remember that your first paragraph may consist of one sentence.

Remember that current thinking favors discussing and analyzing the selection chronologically. I.e., your analysis should start with the first paragraph, continue throughout the selection, and conclude with an analysis of the author’s conclusion.

What follows is a laundry list of items that you may consider when analyzing a piece. It is up to you to choose a few features to discuss in depth. Also please remember that your AP reader is not looking for you to simply name a rhetorical device. (e.g., Hey, look, I found a chiasmus!) Instead, your reader is much more interested in you describing precisely the effect of the rhetoric on the reader and how that effect helps the author achieve his or her purpose.

Appeals – An author establishes an appeal (e.g., pathos) through the use of rhetorical manipulations of language (e.g., Florence Kelly -achieves pathos through her use of emotionally charged diction, such as “little white girls work all night while we sleep” (emphasis added).

Pathos – emotional appeal (may be logically fallacious)

Ethos – ethical appeal (concession and rebuttal)

Logos – Inductive v. deductive (syllogism) (Toulmin)

Structure – length and progression of paragraphs

Syntax – Loose (cumulative) (independent clause placed at the beginning)

Periodic (independent clause placed near the end)

Telegraphic

Polysyndeton

Asyndeton

Simple, complex, compound

NO NAKED SYNTAX!!

Diction – e.g., jargon, colloquialism, details of language – use tone words to describe diction.

NO NAKED DICTION!

Tone – adj. /noun (“a tone of restrained anger”) or adverb/adjective (“an emotionally charged tone”)

Tone shifts

Perspective and voice (first person, e.g. and passive)

Handy acronyms:

DIDLS – diction, imagery, details, language, syntax

FIODDS – figurative language, imagery, occasion, details, diction, syntax

SOAPSTONE – subject, occasion, audience, purpose, speaker, tone

Also, do not forget the impact and efficiency of a single “emphasis added.”

Persuasive essay – Please read the prompt and instructions carefully!! Write your claim in the first paragraph. If you are asked to do so, you must take a stand. Don’t confuse qualification with a balanced approach. (You will get a “4” for a balanced approach.) You may write in first person in this essay. You MUST provide evidence to support your claim. Possible sources for your evidence may include personal experience, observation, and reading. You should include a concession and rebuttal to establish your ethos.

[1] PLEASE remember that one refers to the appeals as “pathos,” ethos,” and “logos” OR “emotional appeal,” “ethical appeal,” and “logical appeal.” If, on the AP exam, you write a silly term such as “pathos appeal,” you will be escorted immediately from the room and banned from College Board Exams for life. (I concede, however, that some of you may view this consequence as a reward. There is no rebuttal to this concession.)

[2] They Say, I Say, Graff and Birkenstein, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. (2006).

[3] Muchas gracias, Testmasters!

[4] This clause is a subordinate clause, which should be followed by a comma, right?

sewardenglish3

Sunday, May 17, 2015

Go Rockets!

Wednesday, May 13, 2015

So proud of you, Studs

Tuesday, May 12, 2015

Side by side

AP M/C Answers

Monday, May 11, 2015

Exam Handout - more than you need, but all you want to read

What a Monday!

Tuesday, May 5, 2015

Tuesday!